Today, our communication elements are -Multiplication and division, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Design, Floating Point Arithmetic, IEEE 754 Floating Point Format, Instructional sequence, Interpretation, Hardwide Control - Design Methods, CPU control unit - Design Methods, Microprogrammed The Control - Basic Concepts, Minimizing Microinstruction Size, Multiplier control unit, Microprogrammed Computer - CPU Control Unit.

Multiplication and division: -
Guna and Division Computer architecture has basic arithmetic operations. In addition, and unlike subtraction, these features require more complex hardware, as they include additions, subtractions, and transmission of repetition.
Multiplication
Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication, but simply because each number is 0 or 1. The process includes:
- To check the multiplier bit.
- If Bit 1 is 1, add the multiplier (switch then) to the partial product.
- If the bit is 0, no extra is required.
- Continue to change and add to all multiplier bits that are treated.
There are two main methods:
- Shift-Edd-algorithm
- The algorithm of the stand (used for signed numbers, reduces the number of additions.
Division
The binary division meets the long division in the decimal. Stages include:
- Compare the parts with dividends (or partial balance).
- If the dividing line is small, set a quotient piece from 1 to 1.
- If the church community is large, you can bring the next bit down and set the part to 0.
- Repeat all bits until treated.
Common methods:
- Restoration division
- Fruitless division
- SRT divisional algorithm (used in modern speed processors).
CPU, digital signal processing, and scientific calculation require skilled multiplication and division for arithmetic devices. Hardware adaptation that parallel multiplies and shares circuits to a large extent improves.
Arithmetic Arga-Unit (ALU) Design: -
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a main component of the central processing unit (CPU). It is responsible for performing all arithmetic and logical operations required by computer programs. Since most computer instructions involve data manipulation, the ALU system plays a crucial role in performance.
Functions of ALU
- Arithmetic operations – addition to binary numbers, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
- Logical operations – and, or, xor, not, and comparison (more, equal, low).
- Shift operation – Rotate operation for left shift, right shift, and bit manipulation.
- Status reporting-alu indicates the condition code or flag as carrying, zero, characters, and overflows, which are used to determine in programs.
Alu design

Alu is usually designed using a combination logic circuit. Its main components include:
- Jonator-Ghatia device: Using full address stocks, binary joints, and subtractions. The subtraction is done by connecting both numbers of the complement.
- Logic Circuit: Bitwise operations such as and, or, xor, and basic gates are not used.
- CHANGES: Handles the shift and rotates the instructions, often applied with multiplexers.
- Control lines: Determine which operation the ALU performs. A control unit sends the operating code (OPCODE) that selects the function.
A multiplex is often used to choose arithmetic, logic, or shift output, which gives the end result.
Flags and Status Register
Alu not only sends the result but also updates the flag:
- Zero flag (z) – when the set result = 0
- Carrie Flag (C) – see if there is a carrying or loan
- Character flag(s) – indicates positive or negative results
- Overflow flag (o) – detects arithmetic overflow
conclusion
Floating Point Arithmetic: -
Temporary point representation
Where:
- s = sign bit (0 for positive, 1 for negative)
- M = mantissa or significand (represents precision)
- E = exponent (represents range)
- Easy cleansing (32-bit): 1 bit characters, 8 bits exponent, 23 bits mantissa
- Double prosecution (64-bit): 1 bit sign, 11 bits exponent, 52 bits mantissa
Floating Point Operations
Addition and subtraction
- Adjust the exponent by transferring the small number of mantissa.
- Add or pull on mantis.
- Common result to maintain the correct format.
Multiplication
- Add an exponent (after adjustment to prejudice).
- Multiply mantissas.
- Normalise the result.
Division
- Reduce the exponent.
- Divide mantis.
- Normalise the result.
Special Values
- Zero (all exponent and mantissa bits zero)
- Infinity (exponent all 1s, mantissa all 0s)
- Nan (no number) for undefined results, such as 0/0.
Round -Colon and Precision
conclusion
IEEE 754 Floating Point Format: -

General representation
Where:
s (Sign bit) – 0 for positive, 1 for negative
M (Mantissa/Significand) – Represents precision
E (Exponent) – Determines range, stored in biased
form
Bias – A constant added to the actual exponent to
allow both positive and negative exponents.
IEEE 754 Single Precision (32-bit)
- 1 bit – Sign
- 8 bits – Exponent (Bias = 127)
- 23 bits – Mantissa
(-1)^0 × (1.101) × 2^(10000001 - 127)
IEEE 754 Double Precision (64-bit)
- 1 bit – Sign
- 11 bits – Exponent (Bias = 1023)
- 52 bits – Mantissa
Special representation
- Zero: All Among and Mantissa Bits = 0
- Infinity: increase = all 1, mantissa = 0
- Naan (not a number): incompatibility = all 1s, mantissa ≠ 0
conclusion
Control Design: -
Types of control units:
Hard control Unit
- Gates use a fixed logical cycle designed with flip-flops, decoders, and other hardware.
- Control signs are generated directly by the combinational logic.
- Benefits: It is very fast, easy, and suitable for RISC-based processors.
- Disadvantages: Periodically, hardware must be detected to change the instructional set.
Microprogrammed Control Unit
- Uses a control memory where microprinting is stored.
- Each instruction is broken into small stages (micro-operations).
- A micro-installation is achieved from the control memory to generate control signals.
- Advantages: Easy to change or expand the flexible instruction set.
- Disadvantages: Slow compared to strict control.
Control design phase
- Instructions decoding – The opcode part of the instruction is decoded to determine the required operation.
- Creating control signals – Based on the instructions, the control unit sends a signal to the ALU, registers, and memory.
- Sequence – ensures that instructions are performed in the correct order, often using a program counter.
- Synchronisation – uses clock pulses to sync actions between different devices.
Examples of control signals
- Memory Reed/Right – Checking data flow between memory and CPU.
- Register transfer – takes data between the registers.
- Select the ALU operation – choose an arithmetic or logical operation.
- Branch control – hands to jump and conditioned branches.
Comparison
Feature |
Hardwired
Control |
Microprogrammed
Control |
Speed |
Faster |
Slower |
Flexibility |
Low |
High |
Complexity |
High for
large ISAs |
Easier to
manage |
Example Use |
RISC
processors |
CISC
processors |
conclusion
Instructional sequence: -
Basic Concept:
Specific sequence:
- Get instructions from the memory of the address stored in PC.
- PC increases to indicate the next instruction.
- Appreciation instructions.
- Perform the instructions using control signals.
Instruction type for sequencing
1. Sequential design
- The instruction is performed in a memory order.
- The PC expands with a certain value (usually instructional size).
- Example: Execution of instructions in loop or correct line code.
2. In branches
- Unprequined branch - always jumps into a new place.
- Conditional branch - depends on the flag of the situation (zero, carry, overflow).
3. Sabarutin calls and comes back
- The module is used for programming.
- The next instruction will be detected on the stack before giving the branch to Sabarutin.
- Upon return, the stored address is restored to the PC.
4. Comes in the middle
- External or internal phenomena that temporarily prevent normal execution.
- The PC stores the current instructional address and checks the control service routine.
Factors Affecting Instruction Sequencing
- Design of pipelines - many instructions overlap during the execution, and require the right sequencing to avoid hazards.
- Instructions - Some instructions depend on the result of the previous one.
- Control threats - are caused by partition in branches and should be solved using techniques such as branch preaching.
conclusion
Interpretation: -
Working of an Interpreter:
- Read: Release an instruction from the interpreter source code.
- Analysis: It passes and examines the instructions for purity.
- Perform: It immediately performs this machine-level operation.
- Repeat: The process continues until the process is over.
Characteristics of Interpretation:
- No separate drivable file is generated; The interpreter runs the code directly.
- As long as the interpreter is available on the system, the independent platform is independent.
- Error handling is easy, as errors are reported immediately after the problematic line.
- The interpreter must be present every time to run the program.
Examples of language
- Python
- Java Script
- MATLAB
- Ruby
Advantage
- Simple program tests and troubleshooting.
- Stage freedom with interpreters.
- No compilation steps are required since the rapid development cycle.
Disadvantages
- Slower execution speed compared to compiled programs.
- Requires more memory since source code and interpreter must both be present.
- Not ideal for performance-critical applications.
conclusion
Hardwide Control - Design Methods: -

Hardwired Control Unit
- Instructions decoder - decoder instructions.
- Time and sequencing ensure the correct order of logic sub-operations.
- Control signal generator-logical gates, decoders, and flip-flops are used to create specific control signals.
- Output control lines - alu, memory, register, and send signals to the I/O device.
Design methods for hard control
1. State diagram law
- The control unit is designed as a final state machine (FSM).
- Each condition direction matches a step in the execution (retrieval, decoder, perform).
- Infections between states are controlled by clock signs and control conditions.
- Hardware logic is used using flip flops and gates to represent conditional infections.
2. Sequential circuit method
- Control arguments are used as a sequential circuit.
- Tenters or sequence registers are used to keep track of micro-operations.
- Decoders and combination logic currently produce control signs based on the current sequence phase.
3. One-driven coding method
- Each state of the control unit is represented to be a unique flip-flop "1".
- Only a flip-flop is active at a time (so "A-heat").
- Control signs are obtained directly from active flip-flops.
4. PLA (programmable logic array) method
- The control unit is used using a PLA, which is a programmable logic device.
- Map directly to check the output through the entrance position (Opcodes, Flags) programmable connections.
- Fixed port provides higher flexibility than logic.
Advantages of Hardwired Control
- High speed (no microinning).
- Effective for a small instruction kit with a small instruction kit.
Disadvantages of Hardwired Control
- The instruction set is difficult to change or expand.
- Complex cabling for CISC architecture.
- Troubleshooting is more difficult than microprogrammed control.
conclusion
CPU control unit - Design Methods: -

1. Hardwide Control Design
- Very quickly (no microinning).
- Suitable for a small set of instructions with a small set.
- It's hard to change.
- Complicated for a CISC processor with a large instruction set.
Example Design Method:
- State machine method - Each condition corresponds to an execution phase (pickup, decoder, performed).
- A hot coding method-every condition is represented by a flip-flop that is active.
2. Microprogrammed Control Design
- It is easy to change or expand.
- Suitable for a CISC processor with a complex instruction kit.
- Slowly compared to hardweed control.
- Micro program storage requires extra memory.
- Horizontal micro-logging - specifies direct control signals; it Quickly, but uses extensive control words.
- Vertical micro -logramming - coded signal; The memory reduces the size, but requires further decoding.
Comparison of Design Methods
Feature |
Hardwired
Control |
Microprogrammed
Control |
Speed |
Faster |
Slower |
Flexibility |
Low |
High |
Complex
Instructions |
Difficult |
Easy |
Use Case |
RISC CPUs |
CISC CPUs |
conclusion
Microprogrammed The Control - Basic Concepts: -

Basic Concept
- Get Operand from registers.
- Send them to alu.
- Save the result back in a register.
Component of the microprogram control unit
- Control memory (cm): Save microinning.
- Control address register (CAR): Currently detects microinning.
- Control Data Register (CDR): Save microinstruction taken from memory.
- Sequencer: Determines the next microintering address (sequential or branch).
- Decodder and control lines: Convert microinstruction pieces into real control signals.
Micro-programming types:
Horizontal micro-logramming
- Each micro instruction consists of multiple control pieces (one per control signal).
- Parallelism is possible.
- Extensive control words require, which causes a large memory footprint.
Vertical micrologging program
- Control signs are coded in low pieces.
- Further decoding is required.
- More compact than a horizontal microprocessor, but it slows down.
The benefits of the microprogram check
- It is easy to change the instruction kit by updating the control memory.
- Supports complex instructions (CISC).
- Many instructions provide flexibility to design formats.
Loss of the microprogram check
- Slowly compared to hardweed control, as it must be brought from the control memory.
- More memory-intensive.
Application
- Used in CISC processors like Intel X86.
- The emulator and instructional kit provide the implementation of the expansion.
- Useful in firmware design where flexibility is important.
conclusion
Minimizing Microinstruction Size: -

Micro-instruction size factors
- The number of control sign indications increases the bit length of each microinity.
- Organization of control signs - whether indications are stored directly (horizontally) or coded (vertically).
- Equality rate - Multiple signs are required to specify high parallelism at the same time.
Technology to reduce micrinthelation size
1. Signal coding
- The vertical micro compulsion controls the signals in the code areas, each decoded to generate multiple signals.
- This reduces the width of the instructions, but may require extra decoding of hardware.
2. Area structure
3. Micrinized Comprehension Compacting
4. Limited Equality
5. Hybrid coding
Trade-offs
- Small micronyst section control reduces memory size, but can slow down the execution due to further decoding.
- Large micrinths improve the similarity by improving speed, but using more memory.
conclusion
Multiplier control unit: -

Basic Concept
- If BIT 1 is 1, the multiplication is added to a partial product.
- If the piece is 0, only changes.
- The process continues until all multiples are treated.
Multiplier Control Unit Component
- Multiplicand Register (MR): Store the number to multiply the number.
- Multiple Registers (QR): Saves the multiplier and changes it each cycle correctly.
- Cremist (AC): Saves partial products.
- Control logic: Displays the operating sequence (add, shift, check the bit).
- Teller: Spores the number of repetitions.
Design Methods
1. Sequential control
- Multiply one step at a time.
- Simple Control uses logic and low hardware resources.
- Slow because many watch cycles are required.
2. Parallel control
- Many partial products are generated at the same time.
- More hardware is required, but it increases rapidly.
- Examples: Array Multipliers, Walecas Tree Multipliers.
The role of the control unit
- Discards multiplication instructions.
- Load opening in registers.
- In addition or alu for the shift.
- When all bits are treated, the operation stops
conclusion
Microprogrammed Computer - CPU Control Unit: -

Basic concept for microprogram control unit
- Control address (CAR): Next micro-installation detected.
- Control memory (cm): Save microinning.
- Control Data Register (CDR): Saves the currently performed microins.
- Sequencer: The next address (sequential design or branch) determines.
- Decodder and control lines: Generate real control signals from microinyst section.
A microino's structure
- Control signs - Enable CPU components (alu, register, buses).
- Sequence information - determines the next microinstruction (eg, branch, jump).
- Coding field - coded signal to reduce instructional size.
Micro-programming types
Horizontal micro-logramming
- Each control signal consists of a dedicated bit.
- Enables design parallel to micro operations.
- Extensive micrinths are required and use more memory.
Vertical micrologging program
- Uses a coded field to represent groups of signals.
- Compact and low memory are required.
- Slowly due to decoding overhead.
Hybrid microprogram
- Connects horizontal and vertical techniques.
- Balance speed and memory efficiency.
The benefits of the microprogram check
- Design and implementation are easier than hardwired control.
- Flexible: The instruction kit can be changed by updating the control memory.
- Useful for simulation of different instruction kits.
- Ideal to use CISC architecture.
Loss of microprogram check
- Slow performance compared to hardwide control (due to memory access).
- The case with wide horizontal microinters requires great control of memory.
Application
- CISC processors such as Intel X86 and WAX are used.
- Planned in systems where firmware updates can improve or expand the CPU functionality.
- Useful in microcontrollers to use special instructions.
No comments:
Post a Comment